The Rise of Nationalism in Europe · Class 10 History: 100 flashcards
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1. Who was Frédéric Sorrieu?
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A French artist who in 1848 prepared four prints visualising a world of democratic and social republics.
2. Why is Sorrieu's print called utopian?
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It shows an ideal world of democratic nations so perfect that it was unlikely to actually exist.
3. What does the statue of Liberty hold in Sorrieu's print?
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The torch of Enlightenment in one hand, the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
4. Which countries lead the procession in Sorrieu's print, and why?
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The United States and Switzerland, because they were already nation-states.
5. What is a nation-state?
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A state in which the majority of citizens, not only rulers, share a common identity and shared history or descent.
6. What replaced the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe in the nineteenth century?
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Nation-states.
7. How did Ernst Renan describe a nation?
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As a large-scale solidarity built on a shared past and a common will; its existence is a daily plebiscite.
8. What is a plebiscite?
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A direct vote by which all the people of a region accept or reject a proposal.
9. When did the first clear expression of nationalism come?
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With the French Revolution in 1789.
10. What did the French Revolution do to sovereignty?
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Sovereignty passed out of the monarch’s hands and into those of the French citizenry.
11. What did la patrie and le citoyen stand for?
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The fatherland and the citizen — a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
12. Name four measures the French revolutionaries took to create a collective identity.
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Any four: the tricolour flag; the National Assembly; new hymns, oaths and martyrs; centralised administration and uniform laws; abolition of internal customs; uniform weights and measures; French as the common language.
13. What were Jacobin clubs, outside France?
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Clubs set up by students and educated middle classes in European cities, whose campaigns prepared the way for French armies.
14. What were the three main provisions of the Napoleonic Code?
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It did away with privileges of birth, made all equal before the law and protected the right to property.
15. Name three reforms Napoleon made in the territories he ruled.
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Any three: simplified administrative divisions; abolished feudalism; freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues; removed guild restrictions; improved transport and communication.
16. Did Napoleon strengthen or destroy democracy in France?
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He destroyed democracy by returning to monarchy, though he made administration more efficient.
17. Why did businessmen welcome Napoleon's changes?
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Uniform laws, standard weights and measures and a common currency would ease the movement of goods and capital.
18. Why did people in conquered areas turn against French rule?
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Increased taxation, censorship and forced conscription into the French armies outweighed the benefits.
19. Name three cities where French armies were first welcomed.
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Any three: Brussels, Mainz, Milan, Warsaw (also Holland and Switzerland).
20. What does 'absolutist' mean?
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A government with no restraints on its power; in history, a centralised, militarised and repressive monarchy.
21. Were there nation-states in mid-eighteenth-century Europe?
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No. Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons, and empires ruled diverse peoples.
22. What was the only tie binding the peoples of the Habsburg Empire?
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A common allegiance to the emperor.
23. Name three groups within the Habsburg Empire.
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Any three: Italian-speaking Lombardy and Venetia; Magyar-speaking Hungarians; Polish-speaking Galician aristocracy; Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Roumans.
24. Which language did European aristocrats use in high society?
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French.
25. Which new social groups did industrialisation create?
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A working class, and middle classes of industrialists, businessmen and professionals.
26. Among whom did ideas of national unity gain popularity?
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The educated, liberal middle classes.
27. What does 'liberalism' come from, and what did it stand for?
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From the Latin liber (free); it stood for individual freedom and equality of all before the law.
28. What did liberalism stand for politically?
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Government by consent, an end to autocracy and clerical privilege, a constitution and representative government through parliament.
29. Did equality before the law mean universal suffrage in the nineteenth century?
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No. Voting was usually limited to property-owning men; women and men without property were excluded.
30. What did liberalism stand for in the economic sphere?
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Markets left free, and the state’s restrictions on moving goods and capital swept away.
31. What problems did a merchant face travelling from Hamburg to Nuremberg in 1833?
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He passed 11 customs barriers, paid about 5% duty at each, and dealt with different weights and measures in each region.
32. What was the zollverein?
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A customs union formed in 1834 at Prussia's initiative, which abolished tariff barriers and reduced currencies from over thirty to two.
33. What did conservatives after 1815 want to preserve?
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Traditional institutions — monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family.
34. How did conservatives plan to strengthen monarchy?
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Through modernisation: a modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy and abolition of feudalism and serfdom.
35. Which powers met at Vienna in 1815, and who hosted the Congress?
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Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria; hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
36. Name three changes made by the Treaty of Vienna.
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Any three: Bourbons restored in France; Kingdom of the Netherlands (with Belgium) set up; Genoa added to Piedmont; Prussia gained western lands and part of Saxony; Austria got northern Italy; Russia got part of Poland.
37. What was the main intention of the Treaty of Vienna?
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To restore the monarchies overthrown by Napoleon and create a new conservative order in Europe.
38. Who was Giuseppe Mazzini?
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An Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1805, member of the Carbonari, founder of Young Italy and Young Europe.
39. What did Mazzini believe about nations?
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That God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind, so Italy had to be a single unified republic.
40. What did Metternich call Mazzini?
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'The most dangerous enemy of our social order'.
41. Who led the revolutions of 1830-1848?
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Liberal-nationalists of the educated middle-class elite — professors, schoolteachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes.
42. What happened in France in July 1830?
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Liberal revolutionaries overthrew the Bourbon kings and installed a constitutional monarchy headed by Louis Philippe.
43. Which country broke away from the Netherlands after the July Revolution?
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Belgium, after an uprising in Brussels.
44. When did the Greek war of independence begin, and against whom?
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In 1821, against the Ottoman Empire.
45. Which treaty recognised Greece as an independent nation?
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The Treaty of Constantinople of 1832.
46. What was Lord Byron's role in the Greek struggle?
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The English poet organised funds, went to fight in the war and died of fever in 1824.
47. What is Romanticism?
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A cultural movement that criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused on emotions, intuition and a shared cultural past.
48. What did Herder claim about German culture?
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That true German culture was found among the common people (das volk), whose folk songs, poetry and dances expressed the nation's spirit.
49. Why did the Grimm brothers collect folktales?
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They saw them as expressions of a pure German spirit and part of the effort to oppose French domination and create a German identity.
50. How did music keep Polish nationalism alive?
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Karol Kurpinski's operas and music celebrated the national struggle, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
51. How did the Polish clergy resist Russian rule after 1831?
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They used Polish for Church gatherings and religious instruction; many were jailed or sent to Siberia for refusing to preach in Russian.
52. Name three causes of economic hardship in Europe in the 1830s.
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Any three: rapid population growth and unemployment; crowded slums; competition from cheap English machine-made goods; feudal dues on peasants; rising food prices and bad harvests.
53. Why did the Silesian weavers revolt in 1845?
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Contractors who supplied raw material and ordered finished textiles drastically reduced their payments.
54. What was the outcome of the Silesian weavers' revolt?
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The contractor returned with the army, and eleven weavers were shot.
55. What did the French Republic of 1848 grant?
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Suffrage to all adult males above 21, the right to work, and national workshops for employment.
56. What did the liberal middle classes demand in 1848?
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A nation-state run on parliamentary lines: a written constitution, a free press, and the right to associate.
57. When and where did the Frankfurt parliament meet?
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On 18 May 1848, in the Church of St Paul in Frankfurt, with 831 elected representatives.
58. Why did the Frankfurt parliament fail?
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The Prussian king rejected the crown and joined other monarchs against it; it lost workers' and artisans' support; troops forced it to disband.
59. How were women treated at the Frankfurt parliament?
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They were denied the vote and admitted only as observers in the visitors' gallery.
60. What concessions did monarchs make after 1848?
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Serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in the Habsburg lands and Russia, and Hungarians got more autonomy in 1867.
61. How did nationalism change after 1848?
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It moved away from democracy and revolution; conservatives mobilised it to promote state power and political domination.
62. Who crushed the liberal initiative in Germany in 1848?
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The monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners of Prussia, the Junkers.
63. Who were the Junkers?
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The large landowners of Prussia.
64. Who was the architect of German unification?
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Otto von Bismarck, Prussia's chief minister.
65. Which three wars completed German unification?
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Wars with Austria, Denmark and France, over seven years.
66. When and where was the German Empire proclaimed?
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On 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.
67. Who became the first German Emperor?
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The Prussian king William I.
68. What did the new German state modernise?
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Currency, banking, and the legal and judicial systems.
69. How many states was Italy divided into in the mid-nineteenth century?
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Seven.
70. Who ruled the north, centre and south of Italy before unification?
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The Austrian Habsburgs in the north, the Pope in the centre and the Bourbon kings of Spain in the south.
71. Which was the only Italian state ruled by an Italian princely house?
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Sardinia-Piedmont.
72. Why did the ruling elites of Sardinia-Piedmont want a unified Italy?
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It offered them the possibility of economic development and political dominance.
73. How did Cavour help unify Italy?
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Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, which helped Sardinia-Piedmont defeat Austria in 1859.
74. What did Garibaldi achieve in 1860?
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He led volunteers into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and, with peasant support, drove out the Spanish rulers.
75. When was Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed king of united Italy?
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In 1861.
76. When did the Papal States finally join Italy, and why then?
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In 1870, when France withdrew its troops from Rome during its war with Prussia.
77. Why is Britain's case called 'strange'?
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Its nation-state formed through a long-drawn-out process, not a sudden upheaval or revolution.
78. What was the Act of Union of 1707?
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The union of England and Scotland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain, through which England imposed its influence on Scotland.
79. How was Ireland incorporated into the United Kingdom?
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After Wolfe Tone's failed revolt of 1798, Ireland was forcibly incorporated in 1801.
80. Name three symbols promoted in the new Britain.
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The British flag (the Union Jack) and the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King) and the English language.
81. What does it mean to personify a nation?
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To represent a country as if it were a person.
82. Why did artists portray nations as female figures?
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To give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form; the figure stood for no particular woman.
83. What is an allegory?
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When an abstract idea is expressed through a person or thing; it has a literal and a symbolic meaning.
84. How were Liberty and Justice shown during the French Revolution?
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Liberty with a red cap or broken chain; Justice as a blindfolded woman carrying weighing scales.
85. Who was Marianne?
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The female allegory of the French nation, named after a popular Christian name to underline a people's nation.
86. What were Marianne's characteristics?
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The red cap, the tricolour and the cockade, drawn from Liberty and the Republic.
87. Where did Marianne's image appear?
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As statues in public squares and on coins and stamps.
88. Who was Germania, and what does she wear?
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The allegory of the German nation; she wears a crown of oak leaves, since the German oak means heroism.
89. What do broken chains mean in Box 3?
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Being freed.
90. What do the sword and the olive branch around it mean?
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The sword means readiness to fight; the olive branch means willingness to make peace.
91. What do the rays of the rising sun mean?
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The beginning of a new era.
92. What does the black, red and gold tricolour represent?
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It was the liberal-nationalists’ flag in 1848, and the Dukes of the German states banned it.
93. Where was Veit's Germania of 1848 meant to hang?
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It hung from the ceiling of St Paul’s Church, the building in which the Frankfurt parliament sat.
94. What is the significance of Veit replacing the Kaiser's crown with a broken chain?
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It marks a shift from loyalty to the monarch to the idea of a freed people's nation.
95. How did nationalism change by the last quarter of the nineteenth century?
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It became a narrow creed with limited ends; nationalist groups grew intolerant and ready for war.
96. Name six modern countries in the Balkans.
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Any six: Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro.
97. Which empire controlled a large part of the Balkans?
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The Ottoman Empire.
98. Why did Balkan peoples see their struggles as winning back independence?
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They used history to claim they had once been independent but had been subjugated by foreign powers.
99. Which great powers competed in the Balkans?
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Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary.
100. What did nationalism aligned with imperialism lead to in 1914?
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The First World War — disaster for Europe.
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